Хотя гены влияют на интеллект, мы не можем усовершенствовать ум

«Для начала позвольте мне рассказать вам, насколько я умен. Вот настолько. В пятом классе учитель по математике сказал, что я смышлен в математике и, оглядываясь назад, я должен признать, что она была права. Я могу сказать вам, что время существует, но оно не может быть интегрировано в фундаментальное уравнение. И не обязательно мне верить. Большая часть того, что говорят люди, правдива лишь отчасти. И я говорю».

Так начинает свой рассказ вычислительный биолог из Кембриджа Джим Коцубек. В работе, опубликованной в Nature Genetics в 2017 году, сообщалось, что после анализа десятков тысяч геномов, ученые связали 52 гена с человеческим интеллектом, хотя ни один вариант не обеспечил большей прибавки, чем в несколько сотых процента, к интеллекту. Как рассказал старший автор исследования Даниэль Постума, статистический генетик из Университета Врие в Амстердаме, «пройдет много времени, прежде чем ученые смогут на самом деле предсказывать интеллект, используя генетику. Несмотря на это, легко представить себе социальные последствия, вызывающие беспокойство: студенты, прикладывающие результаты секвенирования генома к заявлению на поступление в колледж; работодатели, роющиеся в генетических данных подходящих кандидатов; ЭКО, обещающая ребенку высокий уровень интеллекта за счет применения системы CRISPR-Cas9.

Некоторые люди уже готовы к этому новому миру. Философы вроде Джона Харриса из Манчестерского университета и Джулиана Савулеску из Оксфордского университета утверждали, что мы будем обязаны манипулировать генетическим кодом наших будущих детей, во благо им. Также термин «родительского пренебрежения» был расширен и включил «генетическое пренебрежение», предполагающее, что если мы не будем использовать генетическую инженерию или когнитивное улучшение для улучшения наших детей, это будет неправильно. Другие же, вроде Дэвида Корреи, который преподает в Университете Нью-Мексико, предвидит антиутопическое будущее, в котором богатые будут использовать силу генетической инженерии для перевода власти из социальной сферы в форму генетического кода, создавая «голубую кровь» в прямом смысле.

Такие проблемы носят многолетний характер; общественность настораживает изменение генетики еще с тех пор, как ученые изобрели рекомбинантную ДНК. Еще в 1970-х годах Дэвид Балтимор, получивший Нобелевскую премию, задал себе вопрос, покажет ли его новаторская работа, что «различия между людьми — это генетические различия, а не экологические».

Как оказалось, гены имеют влияние на интеллект, но только в широком смысле и в косвенном порядке. Гены участвуют в сложных отношениях, создающих нейронные системы, которые может быть невозможно воспроизвести. По сути, ученые, которые пытаются понять, как взаимодействуют гены, создавая оптимальные сети, сталкиваются с так называемой «задачей коммивояжера». Биолог-теоретик Стюарт Кауффман в «О происхождении порядка» (1993) описал ее так: «Задача начать с одного из N городов, отправиться поочередно в каждый город и вернуться в начало кратчайшим путем. Эта проблема, которую легко сформулировать, на деле чрезвычайно сложна». Эволюция сперва замыкается на нескольких рабочих моделях, а затем тысячелетиями оттачивает решения, но лучшее, что могут сделать компьютеры, чтобы создать оптимальную биологическую сеть из нескольких вводы, это использовать эвристику, то есть сокращенные решения. Сложность выходит на новый уровень, в том числе и потому, что белки и клетки взаимодействуют на более высоких измерениях. Что важно, генетические исследования не позволяют диагностировать, лечить или устранять умственные расстройства, равно как и не объясняют сложные взаимодействия, которые дают начало интеллекту. Мы не сможем создать сверхчеловека в ближайшем будущем.

По сути, вся эта сложность может противостоять способности видов эволюционировать. Кауффман представил концепцию «катастрофы сложности», ситуацию у сложных организмов, когда эволюция уже сделала свое дело и гены переплелись настолько, что роль естественного отбора уменьшилась, уступив работоспособности отдельного индивида. То есть вид проложил себе путь к форме, в которой уже не может с легкостью эволюционировать или улучшаться.

Если сложность — это ловушка, то таковой будет и мысль об элитарности отдельных генов. В 1960-х годах Ричард Левонтин и Джон Хабби использовали новую технологию — гель-электрофорез — чтобы отделить уникальные варианты белков. Они показали, что разные формы одних и тех же генов, или аллели, распределялись куда вариативнее, чем ожидалось. В 1966 году Левонтин и Хабби открыли принцип «балансирующего отбора», который объясняет, что субоптимальные вариации генов могут оставаться в популяции, потому что вносят вклад в разнообразие. Человеческий геном работает в параллелях. У нас есть по меньшей мере две копии любого гена на всех аутосомных хромосомах и наличие копий гена будет полезным, особенно для разнообразия иммунной системы, если эволюция захочет испробовать относительно рисковый вариант, сохраняя при этом проверенную и рабочую версию гена. Со временем генетические варианты, которые могут вносить определенный риск или новизну, будут возвращаться или следовать за положительным генетическим вариантом. Если это имеет какое-либо последствие для человеческого интеллекта, то у генов есть паразитирующее свойство следовать друг за другом; ни один из них не будет настолько превосходным, чтобы использовать другие гены не имело смысла.

Важно отметить, что мы давно знаем, что 30 000 генов не могут определять организацию 100 триллионов синаптических связей мозга, указывая на неопровержимую реальность: интеллект, в определенной степени, закаляется проблемами и нагрузками во время развития мозга. Мы знаем, что эволюция иногда идет на риск, поэтому мы всегда будем иметь генетические вариации, отвечающие за аутизм, обсессивно-компульсивные расстройства, депрессию и шизофрению; следовательно, мнение о том, что наука окончательно решит проблемы с психическим здоровьем, в корне неверно. Для эволюции не существует превосходных генов, только связанные с риском и оптимальные для конкретных задач и условий.

Поверьте биологу, он должен знать.

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    You can perform chest workouts at house or on the health club,
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    Under, we study the various sorts of chest workouts and clarify
    how typically you must train your chest.
    Working out your chest targets two major muscle groups, the pectoralis main and the pectoralis minor.
    The pectoralis main is the bigger of the 2 and sits
    on top of its smaller pectoralis minor counterpart.
    Chest workout routines prolong to focus on peripheral muscle tissue such because the serratus anterior,
    deltoids, and subclavius. Strengthening the peripheral chest muscular
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    This is why you see a lot of people use the cable crossover machine for flys greater than dumbbells.
    As these are more so accessory exercises, you can switch up your cable chest workouts
    weekly, bi-weekly, month-to-month, or as you see match.
    The cable chest press is superb if you can’t get your hands on dumbbells or a
    bench during rush hours. When performing cable incline fly workout routines, stand tall with ft shoulder-width apart and grab the cables while keeping your palms facing one another.
    Preserve a slight bend within the elbows as
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    Free-weight shoulder exercises may help you construct
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    your chest with precision that only cables can provide.
    With progressive overload and correct method, these exercises will
    assist rework your higher body right into a powerhouse of
    each type and practical capability. However yet another examine checked out chest activation throughout flat, 30-degree incline,
    45-degree incline, and 15-degree decline barbell presses.

    First, beginners could discover it useful to start with modified push-up
    variations, corresponding to knee push-ups or using an elevated surface,
    steadily progressing to full push-ups. Second,
    give attention to sustaining correct type by
    preserving a straight physique alignment, engaging the core, and avoiding excessive strain on the wrists
    or shoulders. Lastly, regulate the problem of your push-ups as needed by
    modifying the hand placement, including weight, or incorporating
    variations like diamond push-ups or decline push-ups.

    Their adaptability allows you to target totally different objectives and training types while maximizing chest
    activation. Beneath the pectoralis major is the pectoralis minor, a smaller muscle that performs a giant function in shoulder movement and stabilization. Your upper chest muscular tissues are essential for creating that seen «shelf» on prime of your chest and underneath your shirt.
    It is also an necessary muscle in sports where you throw, punch, or push.

    Your chest muscles are one of the major muscle teams of your upper body.

    Otherwise, he stated to position an incline bench, which may offer
    more stability. Another profit offered by cable machines is the facet of
    a unique range of movement. You’re not just pushing or pulling weight vertically or horizontally – somewhat,
    your body adopts numerous positions permitting a three-dimensional execute, fine-tuning your
    muscles’ growth. Cable machines are a incredible software that can help you achieve your fitness goals.
    They supply a unique range of motion that’s
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    Press into your chest coaching routine to diversify your workouts and stimulate muscle development.
    Modify the cable resistance to match your health degree,
    and concentrate on maintaining correct type for optimal results.

    Lower chest workouts profit health and wellness by selling core engagement, energy training, and correct posture.
    Firstly, core engagement is essential for creating
    stability whereas performing physical activities. The added stability prevents damage and encourages athletes to
    work out using the correct kind. Secondly, decrease chest workouts promote energy coaching, which will increase the number of exercises athletes can perform without damage.
    Thirdly, lower chest exercises enhance posture, which leads to a
    greater lung capacity, and fewer back and shoulder pain.
    In addition, the constant rigidity throughout the vary of motion supplied by
    cable machines, corresponding to cable crossovers, provides a extra important
    stimulus for general muscle growth.
    However as you presumably can see, even in the literature there’s plenty of particular person variation. If that
    is the case for you, consider alternatively utilizing an train like the dumbbell
    bench press. It has been proven to have similar chest activation to the barbell bench
    press however much less triceps activation. The Incline banded chest press, also identified as the
    Low To High Chest Press, is a variation of the standard chest press
    that works the upper chest muscle tissue.
    It also balances pressure on the muscular tissues with
    manageable joint stress and metabolic fatigue.
    But, it’s still important to see how your physique responds to totally different rep ranges,
    according to your objectives. The cable bench press is actually a variation of the usual barbell flat bench press.
    This makes it a great various for people who battle with the barbell
    bench press or have accessibility points with it. The higher chest muscle fibers could be quite cussed to develop for
    some. Fortunately, this train helps particularly goal the upper chest
    which is crucial for full chest development.
    This cable exercise is good for targeting the decrease chest muscles which can be highly beneficial for constructing a well-rounded chest.

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